However, Holland also argues for the careful study of the interactions of race with manipulable variables. Holland (2003) makes this point in detail and reiterates his earlier (1986) argument that one cannot have causation without manipulation. Because race cannot be directly manipulated or randomly allocated to study participants, researchers must be able to translate experimental results into a framework that allows them to address, in some form, causal statements regarding evidence of discrimination. Central to such cause-and-effect inferences is the notion of the manipulability of the potential causal variable, such as race. In The Sneetches, belly-based discrimination is evident in the society the causal relationship between race and discrimination can be ascertainedġ999 Winship and Sobel, 2004). Thanks to these machines, an individual Sneetch’s racial status and various outcomes could be observed more than once, both as a Plain-Belly and a Star-Belly Sneetch. There are, however, Star-On and Star-Off machines that can alter the belly and therefore the race of both Plain-Belly and Star-Belly Sneetches.
In the story, one race of Sneetches is afforded certain privileges for having stars on their bellies, and the other race, lacking these markings, is denied those same privileges.
Seuss book, The Sneetches (published in 1961), which describes a society of two races distinguished by markings on their bellies. To illustrate the problem, we turn to a classic Dr. In other words, to measure discrimination researchers must answer the counterfactual question: What would have happened to a nonwhite individual if he or she had been white? Answering this question is fundamental to being able to conclude that there is a causal relationship between race and discrimination, which, in turn, is necessary to conclude that race-based discriminatory behaviors or processes contributed to an observed differential outcome. Those who attempt to identify the presence or absence of discrimination typically observe an individual’s race (e.g., black) and a particular outcome (e.g., earnings) and try to determine whether that outcome would have been different had the individual been of a different race (e.g., white). Causal Inference and the Assessment of Racial Discriminationīecause discriminatory behavior can rarely be directly observed, researchers face the challenge of determining when racial discrimination has actually occurred and whether it explains some portion of a racially disparate outcome.
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